PsyberSpace: Understand Your World

Fading Memories: Understanding the Psychology Behind Forgetting
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[00:00:00] Welcome back to PsyberSpace. I'm your host, Leslie Poston, and today we're diving into the fascinating world of memory. Specifically: why we forget. From misplacing our keys or a major news story to forgetting important dates, memory lapses are a universal human experience. But have you ever wondered why our brains seem to let go of information sometimes right when we need it most?

In this episode, we'll explore the psychology behind forgetting. We'll look at how stress, information overload, and even exposure to world events can impact our ability to remember. So, whether you're a psychology buff, someone struggling with memory issues, or just curious how your mind works, this episode is for you.

Let's start by understanding the basics of memory and [00:01:00] forgetting. Before we dive in, it's worth noting that memory research is a rapidly evolving field. A 2021 review by Tonegawa et al in Neuron highlights how new technologies like optogenetics are revolutionizing our understanding of memory formation and recall at the cellular level.

Our brains are constantly processing and storing information, but not everything makes it into our long-term memory. The process of forming memories involves three key steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Dr. Richard Atkinson and Dr. Richards Shiffrin proposed this model back in 1968 and it's still fundamental to our understanding of memory today. They described how information moves from one sensory memory to short-term memory and finally to long-term memory. While the Atkinson Shiffrin model remains influential, more recent models like Baddeley and Hitch working memory model have expanded our understanding. This model [00:02:00] introduces the concept of multiple components of working memory, including the phonological loop for verbal information and the visual spatial sketchpad for visual and spatial information.

But here's the thing. Forgetting is actually a natural part of this process. It's not always a glitch in the system. Sometimes it's a feature.

Now let's talk about some theories of forgetting. One of the oldest is the decay theory, which suggests that memories fade over time if we don't use them. It's like a path in the woods -without regular use, it gets overgrown and harder to find.

Then there is interference theory, which comes in two flavors: proactive and retroactive interference. Proactive interference is when old memories make it harder to remember new information. For example, if you've just moved, you might find yourself heading into your old address out of habit. Retroactive interference, on the other hand, is when new information makes it harder to [00:03:00] recall old memories. This might happen when you learn a new phone number and suddenly you can't remember your old one.

Another fascinating aspect of memory is the testing effect, also known as retrieval practice. A 2006 study by Roediger and Karpicke in psychological science demonstrated that the act of recalling information strengthens memory more effectively than simply restudying the material.

Another important concept is retrieval failure. Sometimes the information is there in our brain, but we just can't access it. Like having a word on the tip of your tongue, you know, that, you know, it. But you just can't quite spit it out.

These theories were summarized nicely in a 2004 review by Wixted in the annual review of psychology, if you want to dive deeper into this research.

Now let's get neurological for a moment. Two key players in memory formation and retrieval are the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. The hippocampus is [00:04:00] crucial for forming new memories and sending them to long-term storage, while the prefrontal cortex is involved in retrieving memories later.

A study by Preston and Eichenbaum published in current biology in 2013 provides a great overview of how these brain regions work together in memory processes.

Recent research has also highlighted the role of sleep and memory consolidation. A 2013 study by Xie et al in science found that sleep allows the brain to clear out toxins that build up during waking hours, potentially explaining why sleep is so essential for memory formation.

Speaking of the brain, let's talk about how stress affects our memory. We've all had those moments where stress seems to make our minds go blank, right?

Well, there's a scientific reason for that. Chronic stress can actually change the structure and function of the hippocampus. A review by Kim et al in 2002 detailed how stress hormones like cortisol can [00:05:00] impair both the formation and retrieval of memories.

When we're stressed, our bodies release cortisol, which can be great for short term survival situations. But chronic stress leads to consistently elevated cortisol levels, which can damage the hippocampus over time. This is why people with conditions like P T S D N C P T S D often struggle with memory issues.

It's not all bad news. Short term manageable stress can actually enhance memory formation, especially for emotionally charged events. This is why we often have vivid memories of both very good and very bad experiences.

Interestingly, the relationship between stress and memory is more nuanced than simply "good" or "bad". A 2017 study by Goldfarb et al found that the timing of stress relative to learning is important. Their research showed that stress experienced shortly before or after learning can enhance memory consolidation, while stress [00:06:00] experienced during retrieval often impairs memory performance.

This timing effect might explain why we sometimes blank out during high pressure situations like exams or job interviews, even when we've prepared well. It also suggests that strategic timing of study sessions relative to stressful events could potentially improve learning outcomes.

A 2018 review by Vogel and Schwab highlighted that the type of material being learned also matters. They found that the stress tends to enhance memory for emotionally arousing information, and impair memory for neutral information. This bias towards emotional content under stress might have evolutionary roots helping our ancestors remember essential survival related information in threatening situations.

Shifting gears, let's talk about a phenomenon that's become increasingly relevant in our modern world: information overload. The concept of information overload isn't new. [00:07:00] Historian Ann Blair's 2010 book 'too much to know' traces concerns about information overload back to the 16th century, reminding us that each generation faces its own version of this challenge. Have you ever felt overwhelmed by the sheer amount of information coming at you every day?

There's actually a term for a specific type of information overload: the Gish Gallop. Named after creationist Duane Gish, it's a debate technique where someone rapidly presents so many arguments, lies, misdirections, and pieces of information that it becomes impossible for their opponent to refute them all.

While it originated in debates, we see this technique used in media and politics constantly. It's a form of information overload that can leave us feeling confused and unable to remember specific details.

Related to the Gish gallop is the concept of the illusory truth effect. A classic study by Hasher Goldstein and Toppino found that people are [00:08:00] more likely to believe statements they've heard before regardless of their actual truth value. This highlights, the importance of critical thinking in an age of information abundance.

A study by Qihao Ji and colleagues published in computers and human behavior in 2014 found that information overload can lead to stress, confusion, and poor decision making. When our brains are bombarded with too much information, it becomes harder to process and, relevant to this chat, to remember any of it effectively.

Now let's talk about a challenging aspect of memory in our modern world: how we process and remember multiple significant world events, especially tragedies.

In times of major crises, like the ongoing conflict in Palestine, our attention naturally focuses on the immediate and overwhelming. It's essential that we bear witness to such events. However, this intense focus can sometimes lead us to [00:09:00] inadvertently forget or pay less attention to other important issues like instances of police brutality or the frequency of school shootings.

This phenomenon is related to what psychologists call attention bias. A study by Cisler and Koster published in clinical psychology review in 2010 explains how our attention can be disproportionately captured by emotionally salient information, potentially at the expense of other important information.

Attention bias doesn't just affect our memory of world events. It also plays a role in various psychological disorders. A 2007 meta analysis by Bar-Haim et al in psychological bulletin found that individuals with anxiety show an increased attentional bias towards the threat related stimuli.

So why does our brain sometimes forget these other crucial events, even when we want to remember them? Part of the answer lies in how our memory systems handle emotional and stressful [00:10:00] information.

de Quervain and colleagues, in their 2017 paper, describe how stress hormones can impair memory retrieval. When we're constantly exposed to highly stressful news, it can become harder to recall other important information, even when we consider it significant.

There are strategies we can use to retain these memories of important world events, even during stressful times.

For example, active recall. Regularly quizzing yourself on key facts about various important events strengthens your memory pathways.

There's also contextual linking. Trying to connect different events in meaningful ways. This can help you remember multiple issues by relating them to each other.

Also spaced repetition: revisiting information about different events at increasing intervals. This technique, described by Karpicke and Roediger in their 2008 science paper, can significantly improve long-term [00:11:00] retention.

There's also mindfulness practices. These can help manage stress, which in turn can improve memory function. A study by Jha et al, published in emotion in 2010, found that mindfulness training improved working memory capacity in stressful situations.

Create a tragedy journal. Writing down key information about various events can serve as both a memory aid and a way to process your emotions.

Another useful technique is the method of loci also known as the memory palace technique. This ancient mnemonic device described by Roman orator cicero involves associating information with specific locations in an imaginary space. A 2017 study by Dressler at all found that this technique can significantly enhance your memory performance.

Remember, it's not about consuming less media but about being intentional in how we process and remember information. By using these techniques, [00:12:00] we can bear witness to current tragedies while also maintaining awareness of other important issues.

It's also important to practice self-care when engaging with traumatic news. This does not mean turning away, but rather finding healthy ways to process the information. Regular breaks, engaging in positive activities, and seeking support from your friends and family can all help reduce stress and ironically improve our ability to remember and engage with important issues.

Let's dig a bit deeper into how emotions influence our memory. You've probably noticed that emotionally charged events tend to stick out in your memory more vividly. This phenomenon is known as the emotional enhancement effect on memory.

A classic study by Cahill and McGaugh, published in 1995, demonstrated that people remember emotionally arousing stories better than neutral ones. The amygdala, a part of the brain involved in processing emotion, plays a key role in this process.

[00:13:00] The emotional enhancement of memory, isn't limited to negative emotion. A 2007 study by Kensinger and Schacter found that both positive and negative emotional content is remembered in greater detail than neutral content.

But it's not always straightforward. While strong emotions can enhance memory, they can also impair it. Extreme stress or trauma can lead to memory fragmentation or even amnesia in some cases.

This brings us to the controversial concept of repression or motivated forgetting. Sigmund Freud popularized the idea that the mind might purposely forget traumatic memories as a defense mechanism. While Freud specific theories are largely out of favor in modern psychology, the idea that memory can be influenced by motivation hasn't been entirely dismissed.

While the concept of repression remains controversial, the phenomenon of memory suppression is well-documented. A 2014 study by Benoit and Anderson found that actively [00:14:00] trying to suppress unwanted memories can lead to measurable changes in brain activity and memory accessibility.

A more current perspective is the retrieval- induced forgetting theory. This suggests that the act of remembering certain information can lead to the forgetting of related, but unrecalled information. Anderson and Spelman described this in their paper in the journal of experimental psychology.

Let's explore something we're all familiar with: the impact of technology on our memory. We live in an age where we have instant access to almost any information we need. Is this changing how our memory works?

The concept of digital amnesia, or the Google effect, suggests that the ease of finding information online might be changing how we remember things. A study by Sparrow, Liu, and Wegner found that when people expect to have future access to information, they have lower rates of recall but enhanced memory for where to access the information.

In [00:15:00] other words, we might be outsourcing our memory to our devices. Instead of remembering the information itself we're remembering how to find the information.

The Google effect isn't entirely negative. That same study by Sparrow and Wegner suggests that the internet has become a form of transactive memory, similar to how we rely on other people to remember certain types of information for us.

Social media and constant connectivity are also changing our relationship with memory. A study by Tamir et al, published in the journal of experimental social psychology, found that sharing experiences on social media can actually impair memory for the experiences themselves.

But it's not all negative. Technology can also enhance our ability to capture and revisit memories through photos, videos, and digital journals.

Now, here's the thought that might surprise you: forgetting isn't always a bad thing. In fact forgetting can be adaptive and beneficial.

A review by Richards and [00:16:00] Frankland argues that forgetting is a critical component of memory. It helps us to generalize our experiences, adapt to new situations, and avoid overfitting- a phenomenon where we become too fixated on specific past experiences at the expense of flexibility.

Forgetting also plays a crucial role in decision making. A 2017 study by Richards and Frankland argues that forgetting allows us to adapt to new situations by preventing outdated information from interfering with current decision-making processes.

Forgetting also helps us prioritize information. Think about it. If we remembered every single detail of every day, we would be overwhelmed to the point of stagnation. For getting allows us to focus on what's important and keep moving.

This ties into the concept of the forgetting curve. First described by Herman Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century. This curve shows how [00:17:00] information is lost over time when there's no attempt to actively review or retrieve it. Understanding this curve can help effective learning and memory strategies.

Forgetting can even aid in emotional regulation. The ability to let go of minor annoyances or to have the sting of negative experiences fade over time is vital for our mental health.

With all of this in mind, what can we do to improve our memory and reduce forgetting when it's not beneficial?

First, let's talk about some classic memory enhancement techniques. Mnemonics, for example, are memory aids that help us encode and retrieve information. This could be an acronym, a rhyme, or a vivid mental image. For example, many people remember the order of operations in mathematics. Using the mnemonic 'please excuse my dear aunt Sally' or parentheses exponent multiplication division addition and subtraction.

Another powerful technique is spaced repetition. This involves [00:18:00] reviewing information in gradually increasing intervals. A study by Karpicke and Roediger found that repeated testing was spaced intervals leads to better long-term retention than repeated studying.

In addition to mnemonics and spaced repetition, research has shown the benefits of elaborative rehearsal. A classic study about Craik and Lockhart found that processing information more deeply. By relating it to your existing knowledge leads to better retention than simple repetition.

Mindfulness and meditation have also been shown to improve memory. . study by Mrazek and colleagues found that a two week mindfulness training course improved working memory capacity and reading comprehension.

Lifestyle factors play a huge role too. Regular exercise has been shown to improve memory and cognitive function. A review by Hilman Erickson and Kramer detailed the positive effects of exercise on brain health and cognitive function in 2008.

Diet is another [00:19:00] factor. The Mediterranean diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and healthy fats has been associated with better cognitive function and reduced risk of cognitive decline. A study by Martinez Lapiscina and colleagues published in the journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry found that adherence to the Mediterranean diet was associated with better cognitive function.

Recent research has also highlighted the potential of certain nutrients and supporting cognitive function. 2018 review by Vauzour et al in nutrition bulletin suggest that flavonoids found in foods like berries and cocoa may have positive effects on memory and overall cognitive performance.

As we wrap up, let's recap what we've learned about the psychology of forgetting. We've seen that forgetting is a natural part of how our brains process information. That it's influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including stress, emotions, inflammation, overload, or [00:20:00] even our use of technology.

As we continue to navigate our information rich world it's vital to remember that our memory systems evolved in a very different environment. A 2013 paper by Mercer argues that understanding the evolutionary context of human memory can help us develop more effective strategies for learning and remembering in the modern world.

While for getting can sometimes be frustrating or even distressing, it's important to remember that it's not always a flaw. Sometimes it's a feature that helps our brains function more efficiently.

Understanding the mechanisms behind forgetting can help us develop better strategies for learning and for remembering. It can also help us be more compassionate with ourselves when we do forget things.

So the next time you forget where you put your keys, or you blank on a piece of information during an important meeting, remember- your brain is not failing you. It's just doing its complex, fascinating work, managing the vast amount of information it encounters [00:21:00] every day.

I encourage you to think about how you can apply some of the strategies we've discussed. Whether it is mnemonics, practicing mindfulness, adjusting your media consumption, or simply being more intentional about what you try to remember.

And remember, understanding our memory isn't just about improving our recall. It's about gaining insight into how our minds work, which can lead to better mental health and cognitive function overall.

Thank you for joining me on this journey through the psychology of forgetting. I've been your host, Leslie Poston signing off from PsyberSpace. Keep questioning. Keep learning, and remember it's okay to forget sometimes. Until next time- stay curious.